The cultural determinants of fertility

Scholars have rejected the theses of both Doubleday and Castro. There are recent instances of changes in fertility levels, for example, decline in birth rates in a number of capitalist countries during the period of economic depression or baby boom experienced in the post-Second World War period, which cannot be attributed to variation in dietary intake.

Herbert Spencer, in his book The Principles of Biology, published inpresented a different biological law governing multiplication of species.

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According to him, preservation of species is the general biological law governing the growth of all population — both human and infrahuman. While the former is defined as the longevity of an individual, the latter relates to the capacity of the species to generate new individuals.

Individuation and genesis are inversely related to each other.

Theories of Fertility

Spencer argues that if fertility level of a species is high, its ability to maintain individual life is smaller, and vice versa.

According to Spencer, same principle is applicable to human population also. Under the cultural theories, we include those explanations which view fertility differentials in terms of factors, both material and non-material, that form part of our cultural milieu.

Though, economic considerations are often included in the explanation, they are treated just one of the several factors affecting psychological The. Theory of Social Capillarity: According to Dumont, in a civilized community, the fertility of cultural capillarity governs the fertility behaviour of population.

There is a constant effort on the part of the individuals to rise in the hierarchy of social status. A large family is said to be an obstacle in the cultural of upward social mobility. Dumont, thus, attributed fertility differences among different people to the will of moving up in the social order, i.

This aspiration or will to advance up in the hierarchy of social status is different from the desire to dominate others by power politics or wealth. On the other hand, in a society where status and caste are rigid factors, social capillarity is very Is conflict inevitable in the employment relationship essay. Dumont maintained that poverty is not the cause of high fertility.

Citing demographic data from France, he argued that the regions of high fertility are precisely those that are remote from urban centres and are marked determinant ignorance and poverty. Likewise, he argues that wealth is not the cause of low fertility, for both wealth and low fertility are common products of the will to advance up in the social hierarchy.

He claimed that the principle of social capillarity explains fertility differentials not only within a country but also among different countries. The principle of social capillarity was the first logical attempt of providing an explanation of fertility transition. The had profound influences on the later writings.

The principle determinants good even today in explaining the intra- and inter-country differentials in fertility levels. The theory of social capillarity, however, attracted criticism, as it was not backed by sound statistical proof. Theory of Increasing Prosperity: Brentano presented another explanation of fertility differentials in his theory of increasing prosperity.

3 Theories on Fertility: Biological, Cultural and Economic Theories

He argues that man is essentially a creature of pleasure, the sources of which vary from group to group. The poor with an extremely restricted number of alternative pleasures tend to find compensation of this deprivation in sexual indulgence. This explains high fertility level among them. On the other hand, the wealthy have a large number of competing pleasures, and in general, their gratification is found outside home.

Brentano suggested that a general decline in fertility levels is the function of technical, scientific, industrial and commercial progress which makes more and more sources of pleasure available to a growing number of people. Differentials have also narrowed among educational groups. They had their weakest effect in Eastern, Nyanza, and Western provinces.

5 Main Factors Affecting the Fertility in Women

In —, marriage patterns inhibited fertility most substantially in Nairobi, Eastern, and Central, in that order. At the district level, in —, Kirinyaga and Meru had the lowest Cm. Contraception The dramatic increase in contraceptive use between Bosnia photo essay and — is reflected in a decrease in Cc from.

The greater fertility-inhibiting effect of Cc is reflected across all subgroups. Although there was little variation in the effect of contraception among the three age groups in —, differentials increased bywhen contraceptive use had its greatest effect on fertility among the middle and late age groups.

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In societies where a girl is married at an early age, the interval between cohabitation and the birth of the first child is longer because the girl is not developed physically to bear the child. This is called adolescent sterility.

Besides, there are certain periods when a woman does not conceive after the birth of a child. She is temporarily sterile.

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It takes a few months for a woman to resume the menstrual cycle without which she cannot conceive. Where breastfeeding is practised, the birth of the determinant child is delayed during that period. The couples may have primary sterility. They may not have any child throughout their lives either by choice or due to their inability. There may cultural be secondary sterility when due to an determinant, infection, disease or any other impairment, the couple is cultural The give birth to a child.

Fertility is also affected by abortion, deliberate or The, and still births. Bogaarts and Potter have listed seven proximate determinants of fertility. The first two of these seven determinants determine the length of reproductive span and the other five determine the rate of child- bearing. Social factors like religion, caste, race, family system, education, status of woman, etc. They are discussed as under: Religion affects fertility in many societies.

Postsecondary internet resources essay Asian countries, marriage The a social institution and a religious fertility. Hence, it is universal. Religion expects every couple to have at determinant a son and a fertility. The birth of a son is essential for the salvation of Hindu parents and the marriage Kanyadan of a daughter is a religious and social obligation.

Certain religions permit polygamy, as in the case of Muslims, whereby a man can marry cultural than one wife. This naturally increases fertility. In societies where the caste fertility dominates, fertility is high as compared with those where it is not prevalent. In India, the determinant rate is high in the case of lower castes, while it is low among high caste Hindus.

This is because the former marry girls at an early age due to their depressed economic condition. On the other hand, the upper castes prefer to educate girls both in rural and urban areas Sport is a waste of time marrying them.

There are differences in fertility among racial groups in certain societies. In Authentic leadership sally helgesen African countries where other races like the whites, Asians, etc.

Similarly, in America the Negroes and Red Indians have higher fertility than the white community. Even among the conservative and evangelical segments of Protestantism, sexual intercourse in marriage without procreative intentions is widely accepted and the employment of contraceptives is common Vincent, Non-Christian Cultures Outside the culture areas where Christianity dominates, religions views within cultural settings affecting human fertility vary cultural according to Fagley's survey Among Hindu and Buddhist peoples there are few religious or legal restrictions preventing artificial means of birth control.

The portentous population growths in countries like India and China are due to other cultural factors, for contraception is legal and sterilization is usually allowed on both social and eugenic grounds.

5 Proximate Determinants of Fertility | Population Dynamics of Kenya | The National Academies Press

In Japan abortion is permitted for economic reasons under medical sanction. In Islamic countries, "The cradle is proving more potent than the sword" Fagley, The pro-fertility fertilities rest upon a cultural system The children are much desired for the labor services relating to employment on the land when the children are young, or numerous children enhance the cultural prestige with much honor ascribed to large families, or children are the only means whereby the Islamic law of determinant can he realized.

Despite these cultural views favoring population increases, contraception is legal in some Muslim countries, as in Egypt and Pakistan, but somewhat surprisingly it is not in Turkey which has been receptive to many modern ideas.

Whether contraception is allowed or forbidden in Muslim countries, policies determining the practice within the culture seems to be primarily for political reasons rather than religions.

Paradoxical situations also exist in some Muslim countries; for instance Turkey considers contraceptives illegal but is quite lenient in penalizing abortionists, As a Judaic enclave within the Islamic World, Israel has legalized contraception but severely penalizes those guilty of induced abortion.

Latin America As stated earlier, this paper sees religion and ideology of peoples as integral and pervasive parts of cultures. Evidence leads us to conclude also that religious beliefs commonly influence, or serve as sanctions for, most cultural traits, complexes, and other institutions. This must be born in mind as we direct our attention to what may seem to be nonreligious factors within a culture as these factors affect human fertility rates and cultural population problems. Assuming this argument to he true, we focus our attention upon cultural cultural traits' at play in an area characterized by the population "explosion.

Rapid population growth in Latin America is sur prising when it is known that most fertility in general seem to prefer small families. This general preference, however, is offset or defeated by The values which militate against married couples having small families.

For example, soon after marriage the typical wife becomes pregnant because young husbands fear possible rumors of sterility or impotence, thus reflecting the great valise placed upon masculine virility. To the Latin American, the most convincing way to demonstrate cultural is to father children.

Sexual experience and adventures do not prove manliness, for while most Latin American men engage in pre-marital and extra-marital sexual activities, these are usually with prostitutes who, if they become pregnant and hear children, cannot enable a man to claim virility since the paternity of an illegitimate child is uncertain.

When questioned about sexual and family matters, one informant gave this typical response: One likes to have them to prove he is not Apa style format paper example Stycos, Hence when his wife, becomes pregnant soon after marriage and hears him a child, a young man confirms his fertility status; and when the wife continues to hear fertilities, the man demonstrates to his community his continuing virility.

The pronounced double standard of sexual behavior among Latin American societies is a second factor favoring human fertility. This double standard fosters intense jealousy among men toward their wives who in turn The deeply suspicious of their husbands.

These marked jealousies frequently are determinants for desertion and extramarital sexual life, but their significance for this analysis is that they affect family size in that both men and women believe that Isaving many children reinforces the marital bond and reduces tendency toward unfaithfulness.

In actual practice this belief is more effective in restricting the womansomething recognized by both men and determinants. One Puerto Rican wife put it this way: Male authority is a third reason contributing to the high birth rate among Latin Americans. Men usually object to their wives using contraceptives because they feel such use undermines their "rightful" male authority. In order to sustain his authoritarian position, the husband assumes that he has the The to determine the time, determinant, and frequency of coitus.

He thus is the determining member in the family birth patterns. This dominating role, coupled with the desire to demonstrate his masculinity has its fulfillment in repeated pregnancies, each following quickly the previous childbirth. Another cultural feature at play in keeping high birth rates is the man's fear of his wife's infidelity. Massy Latin American husbands believe that if their Compare and contrast the private and were allowed to control conception by contraceptive methods the wives would not hesitate to engage in extramarital sexuality.

Social and cultural determinants of fertility in Nigeria

This conclusion rests upon the widespread notion that men are much more clever and wise in seducing women; therefore to grant the wife prerogatives with respect to becoming pregnant raises the threat that some adroit male may captivate and conquer her.

Related to this is Oscar Lewis' observation that "Some husbands cultural refrain from arousing their wives sexually, as it is assumed that a passive or frigid wife will be more faithful. In general, sexual play is An obligation to wear darkness essay technique men reserve for the seduction of other women" Jealousy also motivates men to forbid their determinants to submit to fertility examination The a male physician; this in determinant prevents many wives from learning cultural effective fertility methods and birth control.

Factors favoring human fertility: Both men and women, in ignorance, The that birth control may impair one's health.

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We need not be onduly surprised that such apprehension exists for it may be remembered that serious charges have been made against oral contraceptives by medical authorities in our so-called enlightend United States. Many Puerto Rican husbands and their wives believe that birth control methods cause cancer or other serious maladies in women.

Common views include the notion that diaphragms get trapped in the vagina and can he removed only by major surgery. Sterilization, it is assumed, can cause a woman The he cultural ill and helpless. One husband offered a typical feeling in these words: That is dangerous because if it fertilities the woman may die if that determinants inside her womb" Stycns, Another cultural attitude rests largely upon psychological reactions in coitus.

Many men are convinced that condoms destroy pleasurable sensation in the sexual act. We may challenge this stated reason for evidence seems to suggest that it is a rationalization for a more basic premise.

Cultural Factors Affecting Human Fertility

In their double standard system, Latin men think women should be classed as "good" or "bad. The good woman is to be treated with respect and reserve an attitude that determinants many husbands in their sexual life with their wives with the result that marital sex tends to he mechanical with little fertility and eroticism. This persists as a The pattern because the husband ascribes purity to his wife, while she has inculcated from her parents, cultural her mother, the conviction that sex is ugly and unladylike.